Malnutrition in the critically ill child: the importance of enteral nutrition.

Malnutrition affects 50% of hospitalized children and 25-70% of the critically ill children. It increases the incidence of complications and mortality. Malnutrition is associated with an altered metabolism of certain substrates, increased metabolism and catabolism depending on the severity of the lesion, and reduced nutrient delivery. The objective should be to administer individualized nutrition to the critically ill child and to be able to adjust the nutrition continuously according to the metabolic changes and evolving nutritional status. It would appear reasonable to start enteral nutrition within the first 24 to 48 hours after admission, when oral feeding is not possible. Parenteral nutrition should only be used when enteral nutrition is contraindicated or is not tolerated. Energy delivery must be individually adjusted to energy expenditure (40-65 kcal/100 calories metabolized/day) with a protein delivery of 2.5-3 g/kg/day. Frequent monitoring of nutritional and metabolic parameters should be performed.

Continuous renal replacement therapy with a pulsatile tubular pump: parameters must be adjusted in each case.

A three-valve, pulsatile tubular pump was used in 24 pigs weighing 10.2 +/- 3.2 kg; the pump was connected to a neonatal hemofiltration circuit. Ninety-two periods of 30 min were studied to analyze the efficacy of the system with variations in the percentage time in diastole, the diastolic speed, the systolic speed, and the percentage time in systole during which the postfilter valve was closed. System efficacy was determined by the blood flow through the filter, the ultrafiltrate volume, the vascular overload measured by the inlet aspiration pressure, and the filter overload measured by the cross-filter pressure drop and the transmembrane pressure. The variations in the pump parameters did not lead to significant differences in the efficacy of the system or in the vascular or filter overload. The parameters must be adjusted in each case to obtain the best yield with the lowest vascular and filter overload.

Sedação e analgesia em crianças: uma abordagem prática para as situações mais freqüentes / Analgesia and sedation in children: practical approach for the most frequent situations

OBJETIVOS: Revisar as indicações, doses e formas de administração dos sedativos, analgésicos e relaxantes musculares mais utilizados na criança, bem como os métodos de monitorização da sedação. FONTES DOS DADOS: Levantamento bibliográfico utilizando a base de dados MEDLINE e revisão da experiência em nossas unidades de cuidados intensivos pediátricos. SíNTESE DOS DADOS: A administração contínua de drogas analgésicas e sedativas impede o aparecimento das fases de subsedação e requer menor assistência do que na administração intermitente. O midazolan é a droga mais utilizada para sedação contínua da criança gravemente enferma. Os derivados opiáceos e os antiinflamatórios não-hormonais são os analgésicos mais utilizados na criança gravemente enferma. Os opióides associados aos benzodiazepínicos em infusão contínua são os fármacos de eleição em crianças em ventilação mecânica, especialmente a morfina e o fentanil. O uso de protocolos e a monitorização com a utilização de escores clínicos e métodos objetivos como o BIS permitem ajustar mais corretamente a medicação, evitando a supersedação, a subsedação e a síndrome de abstinência. As intervenções não-farmacológicas, como a musicoterapia, o controle de ruídos, a adequada utilização da luz, a massagem e a comunicação com o paciente, são medidas complementares que auxiliam na adaptação da criança ao ambiente hospitalar adverso. CONCLUSÕES: A sedação deve ser adaptada a cada criança em cada momento. O emprego de protocolos que facilitem uma correta seleção de fármacos, uma administração adequada e uma monitorização cuidadosa melhoram a qualidade da sedoanalgesia e reduzem seus efeitos adversos.

OBJECTIVES: To review the most frequent recommendations, doses and routes of administration of sedatives, analgesics, and muscle relaxants in children, as well as the methods for monitoring the level of sedation. SOURCES: Review of the literature using the MEDLINE database and review of the experience in pediatric intensive care units. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS: The continuous administration of analgesics and sedatives prevents the development of undersedation and is less demanding in terms of care than intermittent administration. Midazolam is the most commonly used drug for continuous sedation of critically ill children. Opioid derivatives and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are the most widely used analgesics in critically ill children. Opioids combined with benzodiazepines, given in continuous infusion, are the drugs of choice in mechanically ventilated children, especially morphine and fentanyl. The use of protocols and monitoring through clinical scores and objective methods (e.g. bispectral index) allow adjusting medication more appropriately, preventing oversedation, undersedation, and the withdrawal syndrome. Non-pharmacological interventions, such as music therapy, noise control, adequate use of light, massage, conversation with the patient, are ancillary measures that help children to adapt to the adverse hospital environment. CONCLUSIONS: Sedation should be tailored to each child for each specific situation. Protocols that facilitate the correct selection of drugs, their appropriate administration and careful monitoring improve the quality of sedation and analgesia and avoid their adverse effects.